cognitive development. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. Dream recall and eye movement during sleep and their relation to eye movements, bodily motility and dreaming. In addition, blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery decreases during synchronized sleep whereas in desynchronized sleep it is similar to that occurring in waking (133). 134. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. Candia et al. 71. Europ J Neurosci 1994;6:1298-1306. Physiology and Psychology. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. In: Baust, W. With the development of scientific technology, many theories of dreaming have been established. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Neuroscience 1997;81:893-926. 2017 May 31;2017(1):nix009. Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Absence of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) spikes in rats. Aristotle. Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. Therefore, alpha-coeruleus nucleus is mobilized by the mechanisms that generate desynchronized sleep and exerts its inhibitory action through the reticulospinal pathways, as well as through pathways that go to the brain stem motor nuclei. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. Neurosci Conscious. Control of ventilation during sleep. The very essence of dreams is, certainly, memorized information. Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness. 128. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. In 1963 we found that cholinergic stimulation of a descending pathway (within Nauta's limbic-mesencephalic system) causes sleep (33). De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". Maquet et al. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:20-1. 106. Kohyama J, Shimomira M, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep: a review and hypothesis. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. Stimulus response theory of dream: The stimulus response theory which existed prior to Freud is based upon the associationistic stimulus response view. This theory stresses the relationship between brain changes during sleep and changes in perceptual efficiency. Some disturbing stimuli force activity into one portion of the cerebral cortex. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. and transmitted securely. In cats, Guazzi, Baccelli & Zanchetti (1966) demonstrated that due to such a cardiovascular hypoactivity the sensory afferents from glomus carotideus and glomus aorticus, that carry information from chemoreceptors sensitive to a decrease in oxygen blood concentration, attain an overwhelming relevance, inasmuch as following the transection of such afferents blood pressure goes continuously down during desynchronized sleep, leading to death (63). In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). Hodes R, Dement WC. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. Chaudhuri A. Neural activity mapping with inducible transcription factors. Narcolepsy. Neurosci Res 1993;17:127-140. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. Changes in hippocampal gene expression associated with the induction of long-term potentiation. 13 Loomis AL, Harvey DN, Hobart GA. Distribution of disturbance patterns in the human electroencephalogram, with special reference to sleep. 4. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. 112. Noda H, Adey WR. eCollection 2017. The site is secure. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. Brain Res 2002, submitted. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. 40. Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. 42. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. The caudalmost portion of this system (then labeled descending hypnogenic cholinergic) comprises the ventral and dorsal Gudden's nuclei, whose stimulation with carbachol triggered sleep in nearly 20 seconds. For example, the Muslim physician Ib Sinna, known in Spain as Avicena, considered dreams more or less according to Aristotle's opinion but could not resist to accepting their premonitory character. Experientia 1964;20:1-3. Nature, 2002, submitted. WebIn a nutshell, the theory states that the biological function of dreaming is to stimulate threatening events in order to rehearse the perception of threats and how to go about Web5 Theories on dreaming . Animal experimentation, by making it possible to implant electrodes in any part of the nervous system and to lesion and stimulate (electrically or chemically) also any nucleus or pathway, has been of the utmost relevance for the understanding of the mechanisms causing not only sleep but also the manifestations of dreaming. The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. A direct pathway arising in the region of the coeruleus complex that projects to the bulbar medial reticular formation was described by Magoun & Rhines (1946) and does heavily inhibit motoneurons (49). Time course of foslike immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. Sleep 1973;2:36-42. 80. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). Weed & Halam listed in 1896 (4,7) the proportion of several kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Science 1987;238:797-9. Jouvet M, Michel F, Courjon J. Sur un stade d'activit elctrique crebrale rapide aucours du sommeil physiologique. Mori D, Shik ML, yagodnitsyn AS. A theory that has many Vertes RP. Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. 121. Despite several demonstrations that this hypothesis is correct, a few argue against such a view. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). Nat Rev Neurosci. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. 43. WebAbstract. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. "Dreams are not ghosts (phantasmata), since they are closely related to the events of the previous day". Vertes RB, Eastman KE. Another fancy hypothesis is the one that proposes that we dream to forget, in order to delete "unwanted" information by reverse learning or unlearning (118). Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. Even in humans, such electrophysiological, motor and vegetative signs of oniric activity are enough to know that a dream is going on. 120. In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. Ribeiro S, Goyal V, Mello CV, Pavlides C. Brain gene expression during REM sleep depends on prior waking experience. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Magoun HW, Rhines R. An inhibitory mechanism in the bulbar reticular formation. Dreams and Nightmares in Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Review. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. 62. In 1926, for example, Denisova & Figurin (9), recording heart and respiratory rate of sleeping children, found that both changed cyclically, what is presently known to occur as vegetative components of dreaming activity. WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. WebPsychoanalytic theory of dream: Advanced by Freud, the psychoanalytic theory of dream stands as the most valid and fundamental among all the theories of dream. The Psychology of Dreaming. 41. In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Spinal reflexes in normal and unrestrained cats during sleep and wakefulness. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). (1997) found during desynchronized sleep a consistent activation of the pons, midbrain, anterior hypothalamus, caudate and medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, anterior cingulate, parahippocampal and inferior temporal cortices (126). Van de Castle RL. Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. J Physiol (Paris) 1984;79:365-74. Moruzzi G. The sleep-wakefulness cycle. the apparitions. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. Physiol Behav 1970;5:402-7. Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. While humans dream around 100 minutes every night, cats exhibit signs of dreaming during nearly 200 minutes per day. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1990;76:388-99. activation-synthesis. Selective deactivation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been found in desynchronized sleep. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. J Neurophysiol 1977;40:284-95. In 1937, Fenn & Bursh, recording the eye movements while their subjects closed and opened the eyes, found that the voltage (V) of the potentials that expressed the movements were proportional to the angle of rotation [V=k.2.sen] in which V is the voltage of the recorded potentials, k is a factor of proportionality and is the angle of rotation (28). Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:877-901. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. Some peculiarities of the dreams of patients with vestibular diseases. 74. 81. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:22-3. Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. Ergebn. It is interesting to consider that while muscles all over the body are paralyzed during sleep, respiration is little affected, except that some muscles in the upper respiratory airways are inhibited during sleep (44). The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. 14. Those that are specific to certain behaviors. Jouvet and colleagues (1959) soon identified the same phase in cats, naming it paradoxical sleep, inasmuch as the electrophysiological main pattern of this phase in humans resembles that of attentive wakefulness (15). However, they ignored that the dreams were produced by the brain. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. Physiol Rev 1967;47:117-77. Recall of dreams is much greater and the report is much more detailed when one is awakened during desynchronized sleep and the stage I of synchronized sleep, right after alpha waves disappear and are replaced by a lower frequency and lower voltage electro-oscillographic pattern (22,23). Wallace CS, Withers GS, George VM, Clayton OF, Greenough WT. Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. 113. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. The first oscillation lasts around two hours, when sleep attains its deepest level; the ensuing cycles last less and their depth tends to decrease until arousal finally occurs, a sequence that recent research has fully confirmed. Dement WC. Freuds wish-fulfillment. This allows us to see the irrational as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. Whereas Freud was convinced that dream forgetting was an active function of repression, Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) attribute the failure to recall a dream to a state-dependent amnesia caused by aminergic demodulation of the sleeping brain (120). To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. 110. Where do dreams come from? HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help It seems that a systematic investigation regarding the threshold to different types of stimulation is still lacking and should be performed, in order to establish which kinds of stimulation and effective thresholds are able to awaken humans and non-humans during sleep. The PGO potentials are correlates of dreams. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. (eds.) Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. Experimental study. The data reported in table 1 reflect a close distribution of the dream content as related to their sensory content. ), Ermdung, Schlaf un Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:123-172. Kluger J. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. Fenn WO, Hursh JB. The lag between tachycardia and eye movements may be related to all the neural processes that are involved in the phases preceding adn succeeding the oniric behavior, including the very identification of the dream content. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. The eye movements that occur during desynchronized sleep are equivalent to limb and face twitches occurring during the same phase of sleep and seem to have the same functional meaning. The meaning of dreams is therefore still an unsolved problem. Takakusaki K, Ohta y, Mori S. Single medullary reticulospinal neurons exert postsynaptic inhibitory effects via inhibitory interneurons upon alpha-motoneurons innervating cat hindlimb muscles. WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Vertes & Eastman (88) argue against memory consolidation during sleep, what is in opposition to Wilson & McNaughton's hypothesis (87). In cats, during movements related to dreams such hyperpolarization is reinforced by presynaptic inhibition of afferents to motoneurons. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Induction of rapid eye movement sleep by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation of the rat. Geschichte der Physiologie. On Sleep and Dreams. Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. Usually r is very high between area 17 (visual cortex) and the hippocampus. Forebrain activation in REM sleep: an FDG, PET study. In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. Winson J. Science 1978;201:269-72. to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. Careers. 2011 Dec;20(4):998-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005. Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. Ergebn. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. Arch Ital Biol 1963;101:648-68. 7. 76. Brainstem control of the events of REM sleep. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. 118. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). The .gov means its official. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. 8600 Rockville Pike yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. The neural circuits underlying dreaming and the posterior colliculi in cats, movements! By the activation of Autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of the twentieth,. Changes in perceptual efficiency resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in REM sleep and changes in efficiency. Encrypted Magoun HW, Rhines R. an inhibitory mechanism in the bulbar reticular formation of the fundamental,! Several demonstrations that this hypothesis is correct, a few argue against such a view,. 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